Quantitative analysis of the morphing wing mechanism of raptors: Bionic design of Falco Peregrinus wing skeleton.

The wing is one of the most important parts of a bird's locomotor system and is the inspiration origination for bionic wing design. During wing motions, the wing shape is closely related to the rotation angles of wing bones. Therefore, the research on the law of bone movement in the process of wing movement can be good guidance for the design of the bionic morphing wing. In this paper, the skeletal posture of the peregrine falcon wing during the extension/flexion is studied to obtain critical data on skeletal posture. Since an elbow joint and a wrist joint rotate correlatively to drive a wing to flex/extend, the wing skeleton is simplified as a four-bar mechanism in this paper. The degree of reproduction of wing skeleton postures was quantitatively analyzed using the four-bar mechanism model, and the bionic wing skeleton was designed. It is found that the wing motions have been reproduced with high precision.

Comprehensive text for raptor enthusiasts.

Reviewed by Thomas Dutton, an RCVS-recognised Specialist in avian medicine.

New Insights on the Male and Female Reproductive Organs of Centrorhynchus globocaudatus (Acanthocephala), Intestinal Parasite of Birds of Prey.

Acanthocephalans are dioecious parasites that gain sexual maturity in the alimentary canal of their definitive hosts (gnathostome vertebrates). This initial survey by light and transmission electron microscopy was conducted on the functional organization of the ovarian balls and uterine bell in mature females and on Saefftigen's pouch and the copulatory bursa in males. We studied these structures via the example of Centrorhynchus globocaudatus (Palaeacanthocephala) in Falco tinnunculus and Buteo buteo, from the Province of Ferrara (Northern Italy). Our study confirms that the ovarian balls have surface microvilli and consist of a multinucleate supporting syncytium and a cellular region with oogonial syncytium, single germ cells, zygotes, and shelled eggs. Germ cells are embedded in the supporting syncytium. The ultrastructural features of these components and data on fertilization, shell formation, and release from the ovarian ball, alongside insights into the likely egg sorting function of the uterine bell, are provided. We also present light and electron microscopy observations of Saefftigen's pouch and a suggestion regarding its hydrostatic functioning in the eversion of the copulatory bursa.

Novel phylogenetic clade of avian Haemoproteus parasites (Haemosporida, Haemoproteidae) from Accipitridae raptors, with description of a new Haemoproteus species.

Avian haemosporidian parasites (order Haemosporida, phylum Apicomplexa) are blood and tissue parasites transmitted by blood-sucking dipteran insects. Three genera (Plasmodium, Haemoproteus and Leucocytozoon) have been most often found in birds, with over 270 species described and named in avian hosts based mainly on the morphological characters of blood stages. A broad diversity of Haemoproteus parasites remains to be identified and characterized morphologically and molecularly, especially those infecting birds of prey, an underrepresented bird group in haemosporidian parasite studies. The aim of this study was to investigate and identify Haemoproteus parasites from a large sample comprising accipitriform raptors of 16 species combining morphological and new molecular protocols targeting the cytb genes of this parasite group. This study provides morphological descriptions and molecular characterizations of two Haemoproteus species, H. multivacuolatus n. sp. and H. nisi Peirce and Marquiss, 1983. Haemoproteus parasites of this group were so far found in accipitriform raptors only and might be classified into a separate subgenus or even genus. Cytb sequences of these parasites diverge by more than 15% from those of all others known avian haemosporidian genera and form a unique phylogenetic clade. This study underlines the importance of developing new diagnostic tools to detect molecularly highly divergent parasites that might be undetectable by commonly used conventional tools.

Title: Nouveau clade phylogénétique de parasites de rapaces Accipitridae du genre Haemoproteus (Haemosporida, Haemoproteidae), avec description d'une nouvelle espèce d'Haemoproteus. Abstract: Les parasites hémosporidies aviaires (ordre Haemosporida, phylum Apicomplexa) sont des parasites sanguins et tissulaires transmis par des insectes diptères hématophages. Trois genres (Plasmodium, Haemoproteus et Leucocytozoon) ont été le plus souvent trouvés chez les oiseaux, avec plus de 270 espèces décrites et nommées chez les hôtes aviaires en fonction principalement des caractères morphologiques des stades sanguins. Une grande diversité des Haemoproteus reste à identifier et à caractériser morphologiquement et génétiquement, en particulier ceux qui infectent les oiseaux de proie, un groupe d'oiseaux sous-représenté dans les études sur les hémosporidies. Le but de cette étude était d'étudier et d'identifier les Haemoproteus à partir d'un large échantillon comprenant des rapaces accipitriformes de 16 espèces, en combinant des protocoles morphologiques et de nouveaux protocoles moléculaires ciblant les gènes cytb de ce groupe de parasites. Cette étude fournit des descriptions morphologiques et des caractérisations moléculaires de deux espèces d'Haemoproteus, H. multivacuolatus n. sp. et H. nisi Peirce and Marquiss, 1983. Les Haemoproteus de ce groupe n'ont jusqu'à présent été trouvés que chez les rapaces accipitriformes et pourraient être classés dans un sous-genre ou même un genre distinct. Les séquences cytb de ces parasites divergent de plus de 15 % de celles de tous les autres genres d'hémosporidies aviaires connus et forment un clade phylogénétique unique. Cette étude souligne l'importance de développer de nouveaux outils de diagnostic pour détecter des parasites moléculairement très divergents qui pourraient être indétectables par les outils conventionnels couramment utilisés.

African savanna raptors show evidence of widespread population collapse and a growing dependence on protected areas.

The conversion of natural habitats to farmland is a major cause of biodiversity loss and poses the greatest extinction risk to birds worldwide. Tropical raptors are of particular concern, being relatively slow-breeding apex predators and scavengers, whose disappearance can trigger extensive cascading effects. Many of Africa's raptors are at considerable risk from habitat conversion, prey-base depletion and persecution, driven principally by human population expansion. Here we describe multiregional trends among 42 African raptor species, 88% of which have declined over a ca. 20-40-yr period, with 69% exceeding the International Union for Conservation of Nature criteria classifying species at risk of extinction. Large raptors had experienced significantly steeper declines than smaller species, and this disparity was more pronounced on unprotected land. Declines were greater in West Africa than elsewhere, and more than twice as severe outside of protected areas (PAs) than within. Worryingly, species suffering the steepest declines had become significantly more dependent on PAs, demonstrating the importance of expanding conservation areas to cover 30% of land by 2030-a key target agreed at the UN Convention on Biological Diversity COP15. Our findings also highlight the significance of a recent African-led proposal to strengthen PA management-initiatives considered fundamental to safeguarding global biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and climate resilience.

Stereoselective bioaccumulation of chiral anticoagulant rodenticides in the liver of predatory and scavenging raptors.

Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) are persistent chiral pesticides used to control rodent populations. Raptors are protected species and may be exposed through the ingestion of rodents contaminated with SGARs. Commercial formulations of SGARs are a mixture of four stereoisomers (E1, E2, E3, E4): the cis- and trans-diastereoisomers are each a racemic mixture of two enantiomers. In this study, the residue levels of all SGARs (bromadiolone, difenacoum, brodifacoum, difethialone, flocoumafen) were evaluated in the liver of 529 raptor carcasses. All species (n = 18) and 75 % of individuals (n = 396) were SGAR positive and 29 % (n = 154) had summed hepatic concentrations above 100 ng/g ww. Concentrations were higher for predators with facultative scavenging behaviors than for predators and obligate scavengers. Bromadiolone, brodifacoum and difenacoum had equivalent hepatic prevalence (between 48.9 and 49.9 %), and difethialone was detected less frequently (31.7 %). Concentrations and enantiomeric fractions of the four stereoisomers of all SGARs are described in to demonstrate the biological enantioselectivity of these chiral pesticides in the food chain. A difference was observed between the proportions of SGARs diastereoisomers and stereoisomers in the liver of all raptor species and in commercial baits. The enantioselective bioaccumulation of E1-trans-bromadiolone, E3-cis-brodifacoum, E1-cis-difenacoum and E3-cis-difethialone was characterized and represented 96.8 % of total SGARs hepatic residues. While hepatic concentrations were heterogeneous, the proportions of stereoisomers and diastereoisomers were homogeneous with no inter-individual or inter-species differences (only E1-trans-bromadiolone is present in hepatic residues). However, proportions of brodifacoum stereoisomers and diastereoisomers were more scattered, probably due to their slower elimination. This could provide an opportunity to date the exposure of individuals to brodifacoum. We highlight the need to consider each SGAR as four molecular entities (four stereoisomers) rather than one. These findings suggest new commercial formulations with the less persistent stereoisomers could reduce secondary exposure of non-target species.

Morbidity and Mortality of Birds of Prey Admitted to Rehabilitation Centers for Barbed Wire Injuries, New Mexico, USA, 2016-2021.

Interest in the role of fences in wildlife movement and injuries is growing, especially in the western US, where many miles of barbed wire fences crisscross the landscape. However, literature is limited on the effect of barbed wire on avian populations. From 2016 to 2021, six New Mexico, USA, rehabilitation centers accepted 49 raptors injured by barbed wire. Eight species were represented; the majority were Great Horned Owls (Bubo virginianus). Other owls, buteos, and a single falcon were also affected. Most of the injured birds came from counties with low human population density. The injuries tended to be severe, and most birds died or were euthanized; 11 survived, and only eight birds were released. During the study period, barbed wire injuries accounted for over 12% of Great-horned Owl admissions to rehabilitation centers and 7% of all owl admissions. At one New Mexican wildlife rehabilitation center, raptors admitted for barbed wire-associated injuries were more likely to die or be euthanized compared with those admitted for other reasons. Given the welfare effects to these birds, more research is needed to determine whether wildlife-friendly fence modifications, such as a smooth top wire or rail, would mitigate injuries to birds of prey.

Evaluation of anticoagulant rodenticide sensitivity by examining in vivo and in vitro responses in avian species, focusing on raptors.

Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are used to control pest rodent species but can result in secondary poisoning of non-target animals, especially raptors. In the present study, differences in AR sensitivity among avian species were evaluated by comparing in vivo warfarin pharmacokinetics and effects, measuring cytochrome P450s (CYPs) expression involved in AR metabolism, and conducting in vitro inhibition assays of the AR target enzyme Vitamin K 2,3-epoxide reductase (VKOR). Oral administration of warfarin at 4 mg/kg body weight did not prolong prothrombin time in chickens (Gallus gallus), rock pigeons (Columba livia), or Eastern buzzards (Buteo japonicus). Rock pigeons and buzzards exhibited shorter plasma half-life of warfarin compared to chickens. For the metabolite analysis, 4'-hydroxywarfarin was predominantly detected in all birds, while 10-hydroxywarfarin was only found in pigeons and raptors, indicating interspecific differences in AR metabolism among birds likely due to differential expression of CYP enzymes involved in the metabolism of ARs and variation of VKOR activities among these avian species. The present findings, and results of our earlier investigations, demonstrate pronounced differences in AR sensitivity and pharmacokinetics among bird species, and in particular raptors. While ecological risk assessment and mitigation efforts for ARs have been extensive, AR exposure and adverse effects in predatory and scavenging wildlife continues. Toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic data will assist in such risk assessments and mitigation efforts.

Surveillance for Avian Bornavirus in Colorado and Wyoming, USA, Raptor Populations.

Avian bornavirus (ABV) is known to infect at least 80 avian species and is associated with avian bornaviral ganglioneuritis (ABG). Avian bornaviral ganglioneuritis is characterized by a lymphoplasmacytic infiltration of the nervous tissue, mainly affecting the nerves that supply the gastrointestinal tract of birds. This disease is diagnosed commonly in psittacines under human care and has been demonstrated in wild bird species; however, its occurrence in raptors is largely unknown. Because of the commonality of ABV in the pet bird population, there is concern about the spread of this virus to other companion avian species, such as falconry birds, as well as wildlife. This prospective study used reverse-transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) to survey free-ranging Colorado and Wyoming, US, raptor populations for ABV. Quantitative PCR was performed on mixed conjunctival-choanal-cloacal swabs collected from live birds (n=139). In dead birds, a combination of mixed swabs (n=265) and tissue samples of the brain (n=258), heart (n=162), adrenal glands (n=162), liver (n=162), kidney (n=139), spinal cord (n=139), and brachial plexus (n=139) were evaluated. All 1,565 swab and tissue samples RT-qPCR results from the 404 birds evaluated were negative. Based on these results and a lack of clinical signs suggestive of ABG, ABV is likely not a prevalent pathogen in Colorado and Wyoming raptor populations at this time.

Raptor Pediatrics.

Neonatal and juvenile raptors may differ from adults in their husbandry, disease predispositions, and medical therapies. There are differences between captive bred juveniles and those presented for rehabilitation to the wild, which must be taken into consideration for successful long-term outcomes. In captive settings, many metabolic and infectious diseases may be linked to problems with diet. The successful rehabilitation and release of wild raptor chicks requires special precautions beyond avoiding imprinting.

Diagnostic accuracy of a point-of-care antigen test for SARS-CoV-2 and influenza in a primary care population (RAPTOR-C19).

OBJECTIVES: Limited evidence exists for the diagnostic performance of point-of-care tests for SARS-CoV-2 and influenza in community healthcare. We carried out a prospective diagnostic accuracy study of the LumiraDx™ SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A or B assay in primary care. METHODS: Total of 913 adults and children with symptoms of current SARS-CoV-2 infection were recruited from 18 UK primary care practices during a period when Omicron was the predominant COVID variant of concern (June 2022 to December 2022). Trained health care staff performed the index test, with diagnostic accuracy parameters estimated for SARS-CoV-2 and influenza against real-time reverse-transcription PCR (rtRT-PCR). RESULTS: 151/887 participants were SARS-CoV-2 rtRT-PCR positive, 109 positive for Influenza A, 6 for Influenza B. Index test sensitivity for SARS-CoV-2 was 80.8% (122 of the 151, 95% CI, 73.6-86.7%) and specificity 98.9% (728 of the 736, 95% CI, 97.9-99.5%). For influenza A, sensitivity was 61.5% (67 of the 109, 95% CI, 51.7-70.6%) and specificity 99.4% (771 of the 776, 95% CI, 98.5-99.8%). Sensitivity to detect SARS-CoV-2 and influenza dropped sharply at rtRT-PCR cycle thresholds (Ct) > 30. DISCUSSIONS: The LumiraDx™ SARS-CoV-2 and influenza A/B assay had moderate sensitivity for SARS-CoV-2 in symptomatic patients in primary care, with lower performance with high rtRT-PCR Ct. Negative results in this patient group cannot definitively rule out SARS-CoV-2 or influenza.

Early and accumulated experience shape migration and flight in Egyptian vultures.

Two types of experience affect animals' behavioral proficiencies and, accordingly, their fitness: early-life experience, an animal's environment during its early development, and acquired experience, the repeated practice of a specific task.1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 Yet, how these two experience types and their interactions affect different proficiencies is still an open question. Here, we study the interactions between these two types of experience during migration, a critical and challenging period.9,10 We do so by comparing migratory proficiencies between birds with different early-life experiences and explain these differences by testing fine-scale flight mechanisms. We used data collected by GPS transmitters during 127 autumn migrations of 65 individuals to study the flight proficiencies of two groups of Egyptian vultures (Neophron percnopterus), a long-distance, soaring raptor.11,12 The two groups differed greatly in their early-life experience, one group being captive bred and the other wild hatched.13 Both groups improved their migratory performance with acquired experience, exhibiting shorter migration times, longer daily progress, and improved flight skills, specifically more efficient soaring-gliding behavior. The observed improvements were mostly apparent for captive-bred vultures, which were the least efficient during their first migration but were able to catch up in their migratory performance already in the second migration. Thus, we show how the strong negative effects of early-life experience were offset by acquired experience. Our findings uncover how the interaction between early-life and acquired experiences may shape animals' proficiencies and shed new light on the ontogeny of animal migration, suggesting possible effects of sensitive periods of learning on the acquisition of migratory skills.

Binocular field configuration in owls: the role of foraging ecology.

The binocular field of vision differs widely in birds depending on ecological traits such as foraging. Owls (Strigiformes) have been considered to have a unique binocular field, but whether it is related to foraging has remained unknown. While taking into account allometry and phylogeny, we hypothesized that both daily activity cycle and diet determine the size and shape of the binocular field in owls. Here, we compared the binocular field configuration of 23 species of owls. While we found no effect of allometry and phylogeny, ecological traits strongly influence the binocular field shape and size. Binocular field shape of owls significantly differed from that of diurnal raptors. Among owls, binocular field shape was relatively conserved, but binocular field size differed among species depending on ecological traits, with larger binocular fields in species living in dense habitat and foraging on invertebrates. Our results suggest that (i) binocular field shape is associated with the time of foraging in the daily cycle (owls versus diurnal raptors) and (ii) that binocular field size differs between closely related owl species even though the general shape is conserved, possibly because the field of view is partially restricted by feathers, in a trade-off with auditory localization.

Integument colouration and circulating carotenoids in relation to urbanisation in Eurasian kestrels (Falco tinnunculus).

Urbanisation is one of the biggest environmental challenges of our time, yet we still lack an integrative understanding of how cities affect behaviour, physiology and parasite susceptibility of free-living organisms. In this study, we focus on carotenoids, strictly dietary micronutrients that can either be used as yellow-red pigments, for integument colouration (signalling function), or as antioxidants, to strengthen the immune system (physiological function) in an urban predator, the Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus). Kestrels are specialised vole hunters but shift to avian prey in cities where diurnal rodents are not sufficiently available. This different foraging strategy might determine the quantity of carotenoids available. We measured integument colouration, circulating carotenoids in the blood and ectoparasite burden in kestrels along an urban gradient. Our results showed that nestlings that were raised in more urbanised areas displayed, unrelated to their ectoparasite burden, a paler integument colouration. Paler colours were furthermore associated with a lower concentration of circulating carotenoids. These findings support the hypothesis that the entire urban food web is carotenoid deprived and only prey of low quality with low carotenoid content is available (e.g. fewer carotenoids in urban trees, insects, small birds and finally kestrels). The alternative hypothesis that nestlings allocate carotenoids to reduce physiological stress and/or to cope with parasites rather than invest into colouration could not be supported. Our study adds to existing evidence that urban stressors negatively affect carotenoid production in urban areas, a deficiency that dissipate into higher trophic levels.

Detection of H5N1 High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza Viruses in Four Raptors and Two Geese in Japan in the Fall of 2022.

In the fall of 2022, high pathogenicity avian influenza viruses (HPAIVs) were detected from raptors and geese in Japan, a month earlier than in past years, indicating a shift in detection patterns. In this study, we conducted a phylogenetic analysis on H5N1 HPAIVs detected from six wild birds during the 2022/2023 season to determine their genetic origins. Our findings revealed that these HPAIVs belong to the G2 group within clade 2.3.4.4b, with all isolates classified into three subgroups: G2b, G2d, and G2c. The genetic background of the G2b virus (a peregrine falcon-derived strain) and G2d viruses (two raptors and two geese-derived strains) were the same as those detected in Japan in the 2021/2022 season. Since no HPAI cases were reported in Japan during the summer of 2022, it is probable that migratory birds reintroduced the G2b and G2d viruses. Conversely, the G2c virus (a raptor-derived strain) was first recognized in Japan in the fall of 2022. This strain might share a common ancestor with HPAIVs from Asia and West Siberia observed in the 2021/2022 season. The early migration of waterfowl to Japan in the fall of 2022 could have facilitated the early invasion of HPAIVs.

Farmers' perception of the ecosystem services provided by diurnal raptors in arid Rajasthan.

Farmers are the most important stakeholders in wildlife conservation in the agricultural landscape. Understanding the farmer's perceptions, attitude, behaviour, and knowledge toward conservation is critical in developing an effective conservation programme in human-dominated landscapes. We conducted semi-structured face-to-face interviews with 373 farmers to understand the farmer's perception of ecosystem services provided by diurnal raptors in the arid region of Rajasthan from July 2020 to February 2021 and from August 2021 to January 2022. We grouped ecosystem services and disservices into larger categories and estimated the correlation between them, finding that disservices are negatively correlated with benefits. Raptors were perceived as beneficial for their role in controlling rodents and pests, but negatively for poultry predation. In addition, we built a binomial generalised linear model with a logit function to better understand the factors that influence farmers' perceptions of raptors (positive or negative). We observed that males and females have different attitudes toward the ecosystem services provided by raptors. It is critical to understand social perceptions in order to conserve species that are rare on a global scale but may face negative perceptions on a local scale. Our study connects ecological information with socio-demographic factors, which can be useful in developing policy measures for raptor conservation.

Comparative analysis of the fecal microbiota of healthy and injured common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) from the Beijing Raptor Rescue Center.

The gut microbiota is a complex ecosystem that interacts with many other factors to affect the health and disease states of the host. The common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) is protected at the national level in China. However, the available sequencing data of the gut microbiota from the feces of wild common kestrels, especially for being rescued individuals by professional organization, remains limited. In the present study, we characterized the fecal bacterial communities of healthy and injured common kestrels, and compared the structure of their fecal microbiota by analyzing the V3-V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene using high-throughput sequencing technology with the Illumina MiSeq platform. We found that Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria were the most predominant phyla in common kestrels. Further, the beta diversity analysis showed that changes in gut microbes were associated with injuries to the common kestrel. The Bacteroides/Firmicutes ratio was significantly lower in the injured group. At the genus level, Glutamicibacter showed significant difference in the two groups. The aim of our current study was to characterize the basic bacterial composition and community structure in the feces of healthy common kestrels, and then compare the differences in the fecal microbiota between healthy and injured individuals. Patescibacteria, Spirochaetes, and Glutamicibacter may be studied as potential biomarkers for certain diseases in raptors. The results could provide the basic data for additional research on the fecal microbiota of common kestrels and contribute to the rescue of wild raptors in the future.

Successful rehabilitation and release of a powerful owl chick with suspected rodenticide poisoning.

The successful rehabilitation and release of raptor chicks can be challenging, especially when the chicks are still in the post-fledging dependency period. Here, we report on a recently fledged powerful owl chick that was held in care for 33 days before being successfully reunited with its parents. We document the steps undertaken during the entire process from collection from the wild to post-release monitoring and recommend clinical procedures for treatment of raptors entering veterinary facilities. Success of this rehabilitation was facilitated by early care and treatment for potential rodenticide poisoning, as well as the integration of citizen scientists monitoring the family unit in the field while the chick was in care and during the post-release period. Given the emerging evidence of widespread rodenticide poisoning in raptors both in Australia and globally, it is critical to suspect all raptors may have been exposed to anticoagulant rodenticides and commence treatment with vitamin K immediately. Routine treatment for rodenticides early increases the probability of successful recovery post-trauma as well as reducing the time in treatment as much as possible.

Molecular investigation of Haemoproteus and Plasmodium species of some raptors in Hatay province: new CytB lineages for raptors of Accipitriformes in Turkey.

Accipitriform raptors are significant indicators of biodiversity and environmental health. Currently, most of the studies on avian haemosporidian parasites are on passerine birds, and data on raptors is constricted, with similarities both around the world and in Turkey. This study aimed to investigate the presence of Haemoproteus and Plasmodium spp. in raptors by microscopy and nested PCR technique. The study material consisted of 47 accipitriform raptors (Buteo buteo: 14, Buteo rufinus: 7, Clanga pomarina: 8, Circaetus gallicus: 12, Milvus migrans: 6). The prevalence of haemosporidian infection was 12.8% (6/47, 1 from Buteo buteo, 4 from Clanga pomarina, 1 from Milvus migrans) microscopically and 14.9% (7/47) molecularly. One Circaetus gallicus, microscopically found to be negative, probably due to low parasitemia, was molecularly found to be positive. All PCR-positive amplicons were bidirectionally sequenced, and the identification of lineages of the isolates and phylogenetic analysis were performed using the MalAvi and GenBank databases. The study revealed H-MILANS02 lineage in Buteo buteo, H-MILANS02 and P-CIAE1 lineages in Clanga pomarina, P-GRW06 lineage in Circaetus gallicus, and P-RTSR1 lineage in Milvus migrans, respectively. While this study removes the uncertainty regarding the reporting of the H-MILANS02 lineage in Turkey, it is also the first report to reveal 3 different Plasmodium spp. CytB lineages in raptors. Moreover, the fact that the P-GRW06 lineage (Plasmodium elongatum) detected in passerine birds was detected in a raptor, Circaetus gallicus, draws attention to the need for further investigations on host-parasite interaction and gives clues about the host-shifting ability of this parasite.

Smaller Australian raptors have greater urban tolerance.

Urbanisation is occurring around the world at a rapid rate and is generally associated with negative impacts on biodiversity at local, regional, and global scales. Examining the behavioural response profiles of wildlife to urbanisation helps differentiate between species that do or do not show adaptive responses to changing landscapes and hence are more or less likely to persist in such environments. Species-specific responses to urbanisation are poorly understood in the Southern Hemisphere compared to the Northern Hemisphere, where most of the published literature is focussed. This is also true for raptors, despite their high diversity and comparably high conservation concern in the Southern Hemisphere, and their critical role within ecosystems as bioindicators of environmental health. Here, we explore this knowledge gap using community science data sourced from eBird to investigate the urban tolerance of 24 Australian raptor species at a continental scale. We integrated eBird data with a global continuous measure of urbanisation, artificial light at night (ALAN), to derive an urban tolerance index, ranking species from positive to negative responses according to their tolerance of urban environments. We then gathered trait data from the published literature to assess whether certain traits (body mass, nest substrate, habitat type, feeding guild, and migratory status) were associated with urban tolerance. Body size was negatively associated with urban tolerance, as smaller raptors had greater urban tolerance than larger raptors. Out of the 24 species analysed, 13 species showed tolerance profiles for urban environments (positive response), and 11 species showed avoidance profiles for urban environments (negative response). The results of this study provide impetus to conserve native habitat and improve urban conditions for larger-bodied raptor species to conserve Australian raptor diversity in an increasingly urbanised world.